What is the primary cause of runway incursions?

• A. Weather conditions
• B. Mechanical failure
• C. Human error
• D. Communication failure

Answer: (C)

Runway incursions are primarily the result of human factors—the actions, judgments, and communications of people involved in taxiing and clearing aircraft. Most incursions happen when a clearance isn’t read back correctly, a runway or hold-short designation is misread or misidentified, or situational awareness slips during taxi, lining up, or crossing a runway. Clear, unambiguous instructions and strict adherence to standard phraseology, cross-checking, and confirming all clearances are the main defenses against these mistakes. Weather and mechanical issues can contribute to situations that make incursions more likely, but they are not the leading root cause. Communication problems fall under human factors and are best mitigated by precise language, good radio discipline, and prompt verification of instructions.